French Revolutions and Censorship

Quick quiz: in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, during the various upheavals that revolve around the French Revolution, was censorship by the state more common before or after the declaration in 1791 against censorship?

The clue's probably in the question. After 1791, banning of plays was more common. Under the absolute monarchy, there was a complicated process of censorship, that could involve a nervous police referring to the state or the church. By the time of Napoleon, the Emperor himself was programming plays so that theatre reflected well on his regime. 

My ill-defined understanding of The French Revolution features the defeat of France's absolute monarchy by a popular uprising - led and determined by the influence of the enlightenment intellects - which rapidly degenerated into a murderous free-for-all and concluded in the arrival of Napoleon, who became emperor and turned the revolution into an expansive imperialism. Theatre was not included in my secondary school-level study, although the writing of Voltaire and Diderot implied that performance was a vital public forum for the promotion of new ideas.

In this simplistic version, the ancient regime was totalitarian. Yet its control of theatre was less immediate than the activities of the revolutionary governments. Discuss.

The best part of the ancient regime, as far as theatre goes, was the pit. This was the cheap seats, although it had no seats, just a standing audience that had a habit of shouting at the performers. Apparently, they'd whistle if the acting was bad. They also made applications: applauding, or booing, or launching a zinger at lines that could reflect on current political issues.

This was not about recognising an allusion in the script: it was the audience interpreting. It could even embarrass a writer: when Colle was given props for an application of his Partie de chasse de Henri IV, he ran off at the finale, worried that the state might think he had deliberately alluded to the recent sacking of a popular director-general of finances. 

The pit kept its actions up during the early stages of the revolution. Even the royalists would make applications, giving it laldy during Pompignan's Didon. Voltaire's Brutus was appreciated by republicans and royalists (set in Rome, it had regicides and aristocrats in the dramatis personae). The pit was ideal for anonymous shouting about politics, either subverting or supporting the current state.

By the time Napoleon was acting the big man, the pit had to simmer down. In 1810, Brittanicus was performed. The plot included Nero's treatment of his first wife - just as Napoleon was marrying his second. The relevant scenes provoked only an uncomfortable silence. 

Source: Hemmings, Theatre and State in France, 1760 - 1905

Control of the French Theatre in the period before the 1789 Revolution

French Theatre in the neo-classical era

Each chapter begins with a long selection of documents of control - including permission for actors to retire or move, demands by peers of the realm for companies to admit new members and comments from The Intendant des Menus Plaisirs on various disorders within the performance sector (most notably around the affaire Sainval, an argument about repertoire at the Comedie-Francaise). There is even a declaration by the chief of police regarding the wearing of large headdresses by women at the Comedie-Italian (pg423)

The nature of state control over the theatre is made clear by these documents, although their effectiveness might be disputed. A royal decree in 1720 condemning unruly audience behaviour (pg 412) is followed by a further decree from 1780 that 'shows that the problem has still not been resolved'. The specific authority of the monarch, however, is made explicit by Riccoboni (Reflexions historiques et critiques).

There is a theatre at court where the players perform whenever they are summoned. If the princes and princesses of royal blood attend the Comedie, their birth gives them the right to occupy the premieres loges, even if these places have been paid for by other individuals... it is more common for the royal princes to seat themselves on stage; when they arrive, the actors interrupt the performance, all the spectators stand as a mark of respect. (pg421)

This apparent enthusiasm for the control of small matters did, however, extend to the content of the plays. in 1763, Bachmaumont (Memoires Secret, pg625) notes:

the sieur Martin, police censor, has spent twenty-four hours in the Bastille for having approved the text of a play... within a few months, he will be obliged to give up his office.

Unsurprisingly, Voltaire gave considerable attention to the problem of censorship. His play Mahomet (1740) caused complaints in the Paris Parlement: even a dedication to the Pope (1745) didn't end the controversy. Later, he would adopt a series of pseudonyms to get one play past the censor. 

In 1761 he moaned that 'the public does not want to be deprived of its enjoyment by the ill-tempered behaviour of a police censor' (pg624), even though in 1748, he had written to D'Argental in the hope that 'a first gentleman... (might) put the fear of God into wretches who might otherwise perform a play that the authorities did not want to see performed, and to get their way by threats'. He was trying to censor a parody of his own work. 

CANDIDE – A NEW PLAY BY MARK RAVENHILL INSPIRED BY VOLTAIRE

RSC TWEETS THE ENTIRETY OF VOLTAIRE’S ICONIC BOOK CANDIDE, IN THE RUN UP TO THE OPENING OF MARK RAVENHILL’S NEW PLAY

Directed by Lyndsey Turner

World Premiere

Swan Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon, 29 August – 26 October


I met Mark Ravenhill once. He was very charming. I asked him what he did (he was introduced as Mark, so I didn't know). I really impressed him with my awareness of theatre. 

In a desperate attempt to compensate, I am offering the press release of his latest project. My contribution to the article was putting titles in italics, changing a 'xx' to 'uc' for one play title, and cutting out the notes to editors.

In the current intellectual climate, when repeats are as common as new work, Ravenhill's project is intriguing. It refuses to follow the easy routes of either traditionalism or complete re-interpretation, but seems to be a philosophical glance at a book that is as much about the ideas as the narrative.

Press Release begins.


RSC Writer in Residence Mark Ravenhill has responded to Voltaire’s classic novel in a new play which asks the question: Is it possible to be an optimist in today’s world? In the run up to the world première of this new play in the Swan theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon on 29 August, Ravenhill has adapted the entire book that inspired his play into tweets of 140 characters so that everyone has the chance to read and get to know the original book in advance of his version for the stage. These will be sent out daily between Wednesday 26 June and the opening on 29 August at the rate of eight tweets per day.

Ravenhill said: 'My new play is a response to Voltaire's classic tale rather than a 'straight' adaptation. Although it works as a stand-alone piece, I believe audiences coming to the Swan theatre will have their enjoyment enhanced if they read Voltaire's original. The direct, simple wit of Voltaire's style is perfect for Tweeting. I've worked on a new translation of the original, breaking it down into 140 character 'episodes' that can be tweeted eight a day over the next few months.

‘It's been a fascinating exercise. It has deepened my appreciation of Voltaire's writing: it's incredible to see how every single sentence of the book advances the story and how almost every sentence stands alone as a great quotation all by itself. Very occasionally I've nipped and tucked to fit the 140 character form and sometimes I've repeated a character name or place to make each Tweet able to stand alone.

‘It makes me wonder which other great authors could be tweeted and which would be unsuitable. For instance, Dickens’ sentences and thoughts are too long. But maybe the best way to read Finnegans Wake would be a Tweet at a time.

'Candide has long been a favourite book of mine. I wanted to explore Voltaire's satirical view of humanity's capacity for optimism and ask what it might mean for us today. I'm fascinated by Doctor Pangloss' belief in the book that this is 'the best of all possible worlds'. This got me thinking that it would be exciting to write a play set in a number of different possible worlds, each of them exploring the question of optimism in a different way. I enjoy stories such as David Mitchell's Cloud Atlas and Charlie Kaufman films such as Adaptation and Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, all of which use a number of parallel universes. And since I was a child I've enjoyed Doctor Who stories in which different worlds and times exist side by side.

'In my play, we visit a Venetian noblewoman's house as she puts on a play of the life of Candide, an eighteenth birthday party set in contemporary Britain which ends in terrible disaster, the offices of an international mogul as he sets out to make a movie based on a real life story of survival, the utopian world of Eldorado where gold is worthless and sheep fly and, finally, the slightly-in-the-future Pangloss Institute, where optimism has become a thriving business venture'.

Mark's version of Brecht's A Life Of Galileo was recently produced in the RSC's Swan Theatre. His previous work includes Shopping and Fucking (Royal Court) , Mother Clap's Molly House, Citizenship (both National Theatre) and Pool No Water (Frantic Assembly). His plays have been widely translated and produced all over the world. He is the co-creator of the ITV sitcom Vicious.

The production is directed by Lyndsey Turner, Associate Director at Sheffield Crucible and The Gate Theatre, who has most recently directed Chimerica at the Almeida (transferring to the West End shortly) andPosh at the Royal Court/ West End. This will be her RSC directorial debut.

The cast is led by Matthew Needham in the title role of Candide, with Ian Redford as Pangloss. Matthew and Ian are both currently appearing with the RSC, Matthew in Titus Andronicus, and Ian in A Mad World My Masters. Susan Engel joins the company as Cunegonde.


The production’s designer is Soutra Gilmour, with lighting by Tim Lutkin and Christopher Shutt. Music is by Michael Bruce and sound by Christopher Shutt. Movement by Scott Ambler.

This performance includes strong language, violence and reckless optimism. Suitable for ages 15+